He effect mass media's Female beauty ideal on female adolescents' Research Paper

He effect mass media's Female beauty ideal on female adolescents' self-perception - Research Paper Example The media exemplifies female beauty based on thinness and flawlessness – unrealistic and unattainable physical attributes for anyone, even the featured model(s). These images can have negative affects on female adolescents’ self-perception. Body image is central to adolescent girls’ self-definition because they have been lead to believe that appearance is an important basis for self-evaluation and for public evaluation (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, &Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Awareness of constant public evaluation and the internalization of the gaze of others lead young girls to self-monitor, and in turn judge their own appearance. (Advertising Educational Foundation Inc., 2003). Social comparison is another aspect that plays a significant role in female adolescents’ self-perception (Anderson et al., 2001). By comparing oneself to and attempting to fit such a stringent beauty ideal, female youth faces inevitable failure, resulting in body dissatisfaction, low s elf-esteem, and/or eating disorders (Heinberg, 1996; Rodin & Striegel-Moore, 1985; Thompson & Stice, 2001). Adolescents are vulnerable and easily influenced, and research demonstrates that adolescent females are directly affected by the stereotypes and thin images that depict female beauty in mainstream media. â€Å"Many adolescents are concerned with bodily characteristics and physical attractiveness, and the media is filled with people who exemplify a cultural ideal of beauty that is difficult for most adolescents to attain. For females, a critical part of this ideal is being thin† (Anderson et al., 2001). Exposure to these ideals and images has lead to distorted beliefs and definitions of beauty amongst young girls. One study shows female adolescents’ distorted description of the ideal girl, i.e., 5ft 7in., 100lb, size 5, with long blond hair and blue eyes (Nichter & Nichter, 1991). The problem with such a view is that adolescents often tend to relate themselves to it and attempt to change themselves accordingly. Previous studies have examined the negative effects that fashion magazines have on female adolescents. This study uses such literature to dive deeper into this problem, aiming to gather a better understanding of how time spent, repeated exposure, and both direct and indirect pressures from various media (TV, Internet, magazines) impacts self-perception amongst adolescent girls. Specifically focusing on girls’ ages 13-17, the goal of this study is to point out the effects the unrealistic female beauty ideal promoted by the mass media has on their self-esteem and body-esteem, given that adolescence is such an influential developmental stage. Literature Review Media or what is generally referred to as mass media is any form of communication that simultaneously reaches a large number of people, it is represented and not limited to TV, newspapers, magazines, films, books and billboards (Wimmer ). Given these multiple forms of media it has become possible to access a number of them at any given time. This explains why they have been so effective in influencing our culture, changing beliefs, tastes, interests and behavior (Biagi). It has become an important aspect in dictating what people consider as ideal. The most affected

Sports and Academic Achievement Essay Example for Free

Sports and Academic Achievement Essay Many studies have been done regarding the positive impact that athletics has on a student’s life. Studies have looked at the physical impact that athletics has on a student’s life like sportsmanship, healthy lifestyle, discipline, strategy, and time management. We will be looking at studies that have explored the impact that athletics has on students’ academic abilities. Academic success can be measured in many ways but we will explore grade point averages, math and English test scores, and graduation success rates to show the positive impact athletics has on a student’s academic abilities. Introduction Participating in athletics offers students the opportunity to learn valuable lessons they can use for the rest of their lives. Some lessons include teamwork, self-esteem, perseverance, discipline, time management, and healthy living. However, these lessons are not the only lessons a student learns. Students also learn lessons that carry over into the classroom and have a positive impact on academic achievement. These lessons include increased memory, diligence, time management, and memory capacity which can be supported by scientist that have researched the impact of physical activity on the brain. These studies have concluded that exercise causes â€Å"neurogenesis†, the process of growing cells in the brain therefore, increasing memory and learning capacities (Blaydes, 2011). The National Federation of State High School Associations in their 2008, â€Å"The Case for High School Activities† article shows that the return on investment on athletic programs and other extr acurricular activities is very high. Look more:  essay on perseverance â€Å"At a cost of only one to three percent (or less in many cases) of an overall school’s budget, high school activity programs are one of the best bargins around. It is in these vital programs – sports, music, speech, drama, debate – where young people learn lifelong lessons as that compliment the academic lessons taught in the classroom† (p. 1) Students who participate in athletics will experience greater academic success than students who do not participate in athletics. Using various research studies I will support this hypothesis by detailing the correlations between academic achievement and athletic participation. Students who participate in athletics have higher grade point averages (GPA), higher Math and English scores, and obtain higher levels of graduation rates and continue on to higher education. Grade Point Averages of athletes vs. non-athletes One of the measurements of academic success is grade point averages. High grade point averages indicate one’s diligence, perseverance and desire to succeed. Students who participate in athletics have higher GPA’s than students who do not participate in athletics. The 2002 study conducted by Schaben and Stevens of middle school students showed that students who participated in athletics had an average GPA of 3.15 compared to nonathletic students which carried an average GPA of 2.4 (p. 38). Another study of high school students by Stegman and Stephens (2000) found that both male and female students that had low athletic participation carried lower GPA’s. Male students in the 12th grade that did not participate in athletics carried an average GPA of 3.04 compared to 3.18 of male 12th graders that did participate. Female students in the 12th grade that did not participate in athletics carried an average GPA of 3.28 compared to 3.62 of female 12th grades that did participate (p. 3). Athletic participation directly impacts grade point averages of students that participate; therefore, students who participate in athletics have more academic success than students who do not participate in athletics. Math and English scores of athletes vs. non-athletes High math scores indicate academic success because it shows a student’s ability for problem solving, logical thinking and calculations. High English scores indicate academic success in students by way of writing abilities and communication abilities. Students who participate in athletics have higher Math and English grades than students who do not participate in athletics. Students who participated in athletics were found to have an average final grade of 74.5 in Math and 74.6 in English. Students that did not participate in athletics were found to have an average final grade of 715 in Math and 70.3 in English (Zaugg, 1998, p. 68). A North Carolina High School study of students who participate in athletics found that students who did not participate in athletics had an average Math grade of 57.9 and 50.8 for English compared to those students who did participate that had an average Math grade of 66.1 and 61.4 in English (2001, NCHSAA Bulletin, p. 2). Studies have consistently shown that participation in athletics directly impacts a student’s scores in Math and English to be higher than students that do not participate in athletics. Graduation Rates of athletes vs. non-athletes Students who participate in athletics have higher graduation rates and continue on to higher learning more often than students who do not participate in athletics. This is an academic success indicator because the athletic student is graduation and continuing on in their academic success in college. The National Center for Education Statistics followed high school athletes 8 years after graduation and found that elite athletes and varsity athletes are more than 1.70 times more likely to have postsecondary education (2005, Carlson, Planty, Scott, and Thompson, p. 11). Male students who do not participate in athletics are 4% less likely to obtain a college degree than those males students who did participate in athletics. There was a similar correlation between female non-athletes and female athletes (2001, Caudill and Long, p.529). Athletic students have a higher graduation rate than non-athletic students and athletic students continue on to higher education more often than non-athlet ic students. Objection of higher academic success in athletes One objection to the impact that athletics has on academics success is a study showing that non-athletes have higher ACT/SAT scores. In the 1997 Chronicle of Education article by Jim Naughton, students that did not participate in athletics had higher ACT scores (average 21+) than students who did participate in athletics (average of 19) (p. A44). In the study of high school seniors in Eastern Tennessee (2010, Gorman, p. 80) recorded no significant difference in ACT scores between participating and non-participating students. This objection disputes the findings that athletes have more academic success than non-athletes. Conclusion As the studies have shown, the impact of athletics isn’t just physical. â€Å"Interscholastic sports also promote life skills and lessons and enhance academic performance† (Lumpkin Stokowski, 2011). Those lessons carry over in the classroom and boost grade point averages, as well as the scores of Math and English. It has been found that athletic students have a higher frequency of graduation and continue on to higher education than non-athletic students. Students who participate in athletics have more academic success than students who do not participate in athletics. References Barber, B. L., Eccles, J. S. Stone, M. R. (2001). Whatever happened to the Jock, the Brain, and the Princess? : Young adult pathways linked to adolescent activity involvement and social identity. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 429-455. doi: 10.1177/0743558401165002 Blaydes, J. (2011, Fall). How to make learning a moving experience. Seen Magazine, 13(2), 78-79. Carlson, D., Planty, M., Scott, L., Thompson, J. (2005). Statistics in Brief: What is the status of high school athletes 8 years after their senior year? (NCES 2005303). Retrieved from the National Center for Education Statistics website http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/nels88/ Caudill, S. B. Long, J. E. (1991, August). The impact of participation in intercollegiate athletics on income and graduation. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 73(3), 525-531. Gorman, D. A. (2010). The effect of athletic participation on academic achievement for high school seniors in Eastern Tennessee (Doctorial dissertation). Liberty University , Lynchburg, VA. Lumpkin, A. Stokowski, S. (2011, Spring). Interscholastic sports: A character-building privilege. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(3), 124-8. National Federation of State High School Associations. (2008). The case for high school activities. (NFHS Report). Retrieved from Oregon School Activities Association website: www.osaa.org/osaainfo/08CaseForHSActivities.pdf Naughton, J. (1997). Athletes on top-ranked teams lack grades and test scores of other students. Chronicle of Higher Education, 43(46), 43-44. Schaben, L. A. Stephens, L. J. (2000, February). The effect of interscholastic sports participation on academic achievements of middle level school students. NASSP Bulletin, 86(34), 34-41. doi: 10.1177/019263650208663005 Stegman, M. Stephens, L. J. (2000). Athletics and academics: are they compatible? High School Magazine, 7(6), 36-9. Unknown. (2001, Fall). High school athletes outperform nonathletes again by wide margins in massive statewide academic study. North Carolina High School Athletic Association Bulletin, 54(1), 2. Zaugg, H. (1998). Academic comparison of athletes and non-athletes in a rural high school. NASSP Bulletin, 82, 63-72. doi: 10.1177/019263659808259910

Hepatoprotective Effect of Pomegranate: Histological Study

Hepatoprotective Effect of Pomegranate: Histological Study ORIGINAL ARTICLE A HISTOLOGICAL STUDY OF HEPATOPROTECTIVE EFFECT OF POMEGRANATE, IN MINOCYCLINE TREATED GUINEA PIGS Dr. M. Nadeem Siddiqui Dr. Sarwath Fatimee Dr. Hemant Kumar Dr. Bashir A. Sheikh ABSTRACT Objective: To determine the hepatoprotective effects of pomegranate on drug induced autoimmune hepatitis produced by minocycline. Material and Method: This experimental study was conducted in the department of anatomy, basic medical sciences institute, Jinnah post-graduate medical centre, Karachi. 30 adult male guinea pigs taken and divided in three groups, A, B and C, respectively with each group having 10 animals, Group A served as control, Group B was treated with minocycline 0.02mg/Gram body weight and Group C was given the minocycline along with pomegranate in the dose of 0.9 mg/ Gram body weight. On the completion of study, the animals were sacrificed and liver were removed for the histological examination under light microscopy in haematoxylin eosin staining. Results: The HE stained slides were studied and showed the normal architecture of liver in group A animals, distorted pattern of hepatic cords with marked infiltration of inflammatory cells in group B animals, and less altered pattern of hepatic cords with less infiltration of inflammatory cells in group C animals approximately similar architecture to control group. Conclusion: Use of pomegranate with minocycline can prevent hepatic damage particularly the autoimmune hepatitis. KEY WORDS: Minocycline, Pomegranate , hepatotoxicity , autoimmune hepatitis. INTRODUCTION Drugs are the most common cause of liver injury. More than 900 drugs toxins and herbs have been reported to cause liver injury.1 Drug induced autoimmune hepatitis (DIAH) has been reported to be caused by several drugs.2 Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the liver.3 marked by prominent infiltration of inflammatory cells.4it is an acute and potentially severe side effect, particularly often reported after the long term use of minocycline.5 A significant proportion of patients with autoimmune hepatitis have drug induced hepatitis, mainly because of this drug.6 Minocycline, a semi synthetic, broad spectrum antimicrobial tetracycline available since 1972 is widely prescribed as systemic antibiotic for acne vulgaris which is given for a prolonged period ( month to years).6 Foods rich in natural antioxidants have been proposed as a tool to prevent and cure liver damage.7 The pomegranate is one of the important dietary sources, that exhibits strong anti oxidant and an ti-inflammatory properties.8 Its main constitute, ellagic acid, have been proven to antagonize in vitro to inhibit the pro-inflammatory mechanisms.9 MATERIAL METHOD This experimental study was conducted for 8 weeks by taking 30 adult male guinea pigs of 450-650 weight at animal house of BMSI, JPMC, Karachi and divided them into three main groups i.e., A,B and C that comprises 10 animals each and receiving standard laboratory diet ad labitum. Group A served as control, group B was given minocycline 0.02 mg /G body weight / day orally based on human consumption for the duration of one year, while group C was given minocycline in the same dose along with pomegranate 0.9 mg /G body weight /day orally. At the end of the experimental period, all the animals were sacrificed under ether anesthesia and liver was removed to be fixed in 10% formalin for 24-48 hours. The tissue samples taken from the organ were then dehydrated in ascending strength of alcohol, cleared in xylene, infiltrated and embedded in paraffin wax. Tissue blocks were made and 4-5 ÃŽ ¼m thick sections were obtained by cutting them with microtome. The sections then mounted on glass slide s and were stained with haematoxylin and eosin. The morphological changes in normal architecture of liver lobule were observed under light microscope with the help of 8X ocular, 40X objectives and graded according to the infiltration of inflammatory cells within the three zones of hepatic lobule 8. The grading was done as follows: Grade O (normal N) : no infiltration of infiltration of inflammatory cells in any zone. Grade I (mild M+) : infiltration of inflammatory cells within zone I Grade II (moderate M++) : infiltration of inflammatory cells within zone II Grade III (marked M+++) : infiltration of inflammatory cells within zone III RESULTS The present study was design to observe the minocycline treated animal and pomegranate protected animal in guinea pigs. Observations and results of microscopic examination were compared with control animal. The minocycline treated group B animal showed the distorted pattern of hepatic cords, dilated central vein with marked congestion, and some swollen hepatocytes with piknotic nuclei. Areas of marked infiltration of inflammatory cells especially lymphocytes and plasma cells observed in zone III of hepatic lobule. The microscopic examination of pomegranate and minocycline treated group C animals showed the architecture of hepatic lobule in comparison to control group A that is less distorted of hepatic cords and less dilated central vein, while infiltration of inflammatory cells is markedly decreased and limited to zone I when compared to group B animals n: number of animals N: normal M+ : Mild. M+++ : Marked DISCUSSION The histological examination of hepatic lobules in haemotoxylin and eosin stained sections of control group A showed normal architecture as described by Young et al.10,11 In the minocycline treated animals of group B the architecture of hepatic lobule has markedly changed when compared to group A. It showed the irregular distorted pattern of hepatic cords, increase in vascularity and irregular shape of hepatocytes with pyknotic nuclei. This is in agreement with Lawrenson et al. who described the comparative changes in hepatic architecture after the use of minocycline that showed the necrotic and inflammatory changes with distorted pattern of hepatic cords.12 This is also concluded by Kumar et al. who also showed the necrotic changes and plasma cell infiltration with distorted pattern of hepatic cords in autoimmune hepatitis.13 Group C animals treated with pomegranate and minocycline simultaneously demonstrate the protective effects on hepatic architecture. The hepatic cords showed regular arrangement of and the hepatocytes were normal in shape, while the hepatic lobules showed less accumulation of inflammatory cells when compared to Group B animals. This is in accordance with the study of Novarro et al. who proved that after the treatment of pomegranate in hepatoma the pattern of distorted hepatic cords become normal.14 This is also in concurrence with the study of Middha et al. who concluded that utilization of pomegranate, ultimately improve the hepatic architecture by providing the protection against oxidative damage.15 CONCLUSION From the results of this study, it can be concluded that pomegranate has proved to be highly effective in preventing the hepatic damage produced by minocycline particularly minocycline induced autoimmune hepatitis. So use of pomegranate should be promoted in daily life, particularly in those patients who are on long term minocycline treatment. Figure 1: HE stained 4 micron thick sections of minocycline treated liver, showing dilated central vein (CV), distorted hepatic cords with numerous pyknotic nuclei (PN) and marked infiltration of inflammatory cells (IC). (Photomicrograph X400). Figure 2: HE stained section 4 micron thick of pomegranate protected in minocycline treated liver, showing less dilated central vein (CV), more regular hepatic cords (HC) with normal nuclei and less infiltration of inflammatory cells (IC). (Photomicrograph X 400). REFERENCES Mehta N, Ozick L. Drug-induced hepatotoxicity.Mar 28 2008, From http:// emedicine.medscape.com/article/169814.: Bjà ¶rnsson E, Talwalkar J, Treeprasertsuk S, Kamath PS, Takahashi N, Sanderson S, Neuhauser M, Lindor K. Drug-induced autoimmune hepatitis: clinical characteristics and prognosis. Hepatology. 2010 Jun;51(6):2040-8. Manns MP and Vogel A. Autoimmune Hepatitis, From Mechanisms to Therapy.  HEPATOLOGY2006;43:S132-S144. Aldenhoven M, van Enk JG, Avis WA. Czaja AJ. Minocycline-induced autoimmune hepatitis. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2013;157(3):A5465. Drug induced hepatitis with autoimmune features during minocycline therapy. Abe M, Furukawa S, Takayama S, Mlchitaka K, Mlnami H, Yamamoto K, Horiike N and Onji M.Internal Medicine. 2003; 42 (1): 48-52. Antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective effect of pomegranate peel and whey powders in rats. Ashoush IS, El-Batawy OI, El-Shourbagy GA. Annals of Agriculture Science ;2013: 58 (1): 27-32. Coursodon-Boyiddle CF , Snarrenberg CL,. Adkins-Rieck CK, Bassaganya-Riera J,2 Raquel Hontecillas R, Peter Lawrence P, Brenna JT, Jouni ZE, and DvorakB. Pomegranate seed oil reduces intestinal damage in a rat model of necrotizing enterocolitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2012 September 15; 303(6): G744–G751. Dell’Agli, M, Galli ,GV,Bulgari, M, Basillico, N, Romeo, S, Bhattacharya D, Taramelli, D, and Bosisio, E 2010, ‘Ellagitannins of the fruit rind of Pomegranate (Punica granatum) antagonist in vitro the host of inflammatory response mechanisms involved in onset of malaria’, Malaria journal, vol. 9, pp. 208. Young B, Lowe JS, Stevens A, Heath JW. Wheater’s Functional Histology ; A Text and Colour Atlas. 2006 :290-294. Kasper DL, Fauci AS, Longo DL, Braunwald E, Hauser SL, Jameson JL. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 2005; 16th Edition: 1808. Lawrenson RA, Seaman HE, Sundstrom A, Williams TJ, Farmer RDT. Liver damage associated with minocycline use in acne. 2001;4: 333-349. Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN. Robbins Basic Pathology.8th Edition. 2007; 8th Edition: 633. Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Aster JC. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 2010; 8th  Edition: 855 Navarro M, Amigo-Benavent M, Mesias M, Baeza G, Gokmen V, Bravo L, Moralesa FJ. An Oxidative pomegranate seed extract ameliorates oxidative stress of human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Journal of Science of Food and Agriculture. 2014; 94: 162-167. Midha SK, Usha T, Pannde V. AReview on antihypergycemic and hepatoprotective activity of Eco-Friendly Punica Granatum peel waste. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013. From http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/656172.

Barbed Wire By Mary Emeny :: essays research papers

Mary Emeny’s poem, â€Å"Barbed Wire,† depicts war as a negative force, destroying every decent aspect of human existence. Written during the Vietnam War, the work displays Emeny’s negative views on war. In one way or another everyone experiences and identifies with the presence of war. Although some wars are fought for justifiable reasons, every war tears into the lives of those undeserving. The tragic effects of war consume the innocent creating an unconquerable path of entanglement. The physical effects of war overwhelm the naà ¯ve causing pain and suffering. Initially, war entangles the lives of youth, destroying the innocence that they experience as an aspect of their life. The girl â€Å"glid[ing] gracefully down the path† (1) and the boy â€Å"rid[ing] eagerly down the road† (9) have their enjoyable realities striped by the harshness of war. Likewise, war enters women’s lives creating turmoil. The woman who works â€Å"deftly in the fields† ( ) no longer is able to experience the offerings of life. The â€Å"wire cuts,† ( ) pushing her away from the normal flow of life. In addition, man undergoes tragic obstacles as a result of war. â€Å"A man walks nobly and alone† ( ) before the horrible effects of war set in on his life causing disruptions. War enters the life of man destroying the bond man shares with his beloved environment ( ). Although a great deal of physical effects exist in Emeny’s work, the spiritual consequences of war serve as the most devastating ones. The will and spirit of those amidst the harshness of war diminishes because of the seriousness of war. Prior to the complexities of war, the â€Å"spirit flees gleefully to the clouds,† ( ) illustrating the freedom one expresses without repression. As soon as the â€Å"wire catches,† ( ) or the war commences, and intervenes with the lives of innocent bystanders, the innocence is lost. Furthermore, the hearts of the untainted human beings experience demolition due to the irrationality of war. Before the tragedy of war enters the picture, a heart â€Å"goes openly to the street,† ( ) showing the freedom that one possesses until the â€Å"wire snares,† ( ) and the sense of innocence disappears. Significantly, as a direct result of the entanglement of war, man’s mind suffers pain and misfortune. A man’s min d â€Å"grows in searching† ( ) preceding the brutality of war, exhibiting the ability of man to explore his surroundings without interference.

Poetic Techniques Employed by Robert Herrick Essay

Much of the poetry of the 17th century was heavily romantic, focusing on damsels and decadent parties where the Roman wine God Bacchaus ruled supreme. Amongst the movements’ teachings was the idea of â€Å"Carpe Diem† – the Latin phrase for â€Å"seize the day†. Herrick, fascinated by this ancient philosophy, centred many of his poems on the theme, cautioning people to use their time wisely. Robert Herrick was one of the â€Å"Tribe of Ben†, a group of poets who followed and were inspired by the works of the dramatist Ben Jonson. The Cavalier Poets were seen as followers of Ben Jonson because, in the words of Professor Jennifer Mooney, â€Å"they drank with, rhymed with and modeled themselves after Jonson.† The name â€Å"Cavalier† was given to the group as they were a movement who believed in living life to the full. Anniina Jokinen states: â€Å"They treat life cavalierly, indeed, and sometimes they treat poetic convention cavalierly too† They glorified the ordinary rather than great historical or fantastical epics. However it is not only this group of poets that Herrick is connected with, but with the Carpe Diem poets such as Andrew Marvell who was the author of the famous â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† and Christopher Marlowe. This dissertation will look at the texts: â€Å"All Things Decay and Die†, â€Å"To Live Merrily and To Trust to Good Verses†, â€Å"To Daffodils†, â€Å"To Bed of Tulips†, â€Å"Corinna’s Gone a Maying† and the famous â€Å"To the Virgins to Make Much of Time†. Each of these poems are very similar, however there are many differences that render them unique. This dissertation aims to analyse Herricks’ carpe diem poetry by studying the techniques employed by Robert Herrick in his exploration of the concept. One reason why Robert Herrick’s poetry is so successful is because it is simple. Part of this simplicity is helped by symbolism that is used to mirror the ideas of mortality and carpe diem. These symbols are universally understood and give the poems not only richness but also an element of clarity that is gracefully treated. This simplicity is brilliantly evident in â€Å"To the Virgins, To Make Much of Time†: â€Å"Gather Ye rosebuds while ye may Old Time is still a flying But this same flower that smiles today Tomorrow will be Dying.† This first stanza displays Herrick’s effective simplicity. Sarah Gilead states that the first line is the â€Å"distillation of the carpe diem message† as it states a mere fact of life: we are here for a limited time only and we must use our time wisely. It is the universality that has made Herrick’s poetry last throughout the ages. He uses parallels that are everlasting. The rosebuds in this stanza symbolize the fruits of life – things we set out to gain in our lives. The â€Å"rosebuds† could be anything – they could be ordinary material objects such as a house, or something more sentimental like love. Herrick advises us though, to get them while we are young, for youth quickly dies. Therefore the rosebuds not only symbolize the objects and aspirations of life, but life its self for we too â€Å"tomorrow will be dying†. A similar use of flowers as a symbol of the briefness of life is evident in â€Å"To Blossoms†: â€Å"Fair pledges of a fruitful tree, Why do ye fall so fast?† Blossom is, of course, the blooming of flowers. However, despite their obvious beauty, they quickly wither and die. In this poem Herrick looks upon the dying blossoms of a tree. Through this Herrick sees that these blossoms show how it is the nature of all things to pass away. This is evident as Herrick describes how in its leaves one can read â€Å"how soon things can end†, and by saying: â€Å"Like you awhile, they glide Into the grave.† Thus, Herrick is comparing the lives of blossom, to the lives of humans to find that they are both the same: they are both mortal and must die. By choosing something like Blossom that passes away so quickly, Herrick exaggerates the shortness of the human life span but in doing so reveals that we too life for only a brief time. This idea is also shown in â€Å"All Things Decay and Die†, which concerns itself not with flowers, but rather with the mighty trees of the forest. Again Herrick shows how no one is invincible by showing that even the mightiest of trees has to â€Å"decay and die†. Nothing withstands time but time itself. Herrick portrays this theme by using the idea of trees. Trees, unlike blossoms, live for hundreds of years. Yet they are not immortal and must therefore die. Herrick displays this by writing: â€Å"The sovereign of all plants, the oak Droops, dies and falls without the cleavers stroke.† What is interesting is the use of the word â€Å"sovereign† as it’s connotations to royalty and King. This concept of power and nobility is repeated earlier in the poem when the oak is described as â€Å"the proud dictator of a state like wood†, which once more implies strength, power and authority. So why does Herrick use such words to describe a tree? The answer is because he wanted to show that the mighty fall as well – that they are not immune to the rules of the cosmos. Therefore it is evident that through the use of vegetation Herrick has created a simple, yet effective parallel of human life that explains just how short our lives are and illustrates why exactly we should â€Å"seize the day†. Herrick’s poetry, though, has other ideas which illuminate the theme of carpe diem. The flowers in â€Å"To the Virgins† and â€Å"To a Bed of Tulips† not only symbolize life, but are used to represent virgin women. These two poems urge the virgins â€Å"Be not coy, but use your time And while ye may go marry: For having lost but once your prime You may forever tarry.† Robert Herrick strikes a note here as it is human nature to put things off and to say â€Å"There’s always tomorrow†, but if we â€Å"forever tarry† then we shall never do what we planned – time will catch up on us. In other words: seize the day! â€Å"To a Bed of Tulips† has an almost identical last stanza as again Herrick repeats his message to those unmarried maidens by saying – â€Å"Come virgins, then and see Your frailties, and bemoan ye For, lost like these, twill be As time has never known ye† Once more Robert Herrick is drawing a parallel between his two subjects as he compares these virgins with the Tulips. In this final stanza he describes the virgins as frail and insignificant in the world. This mirrors the rest of the poem as the tulips â€Å"quickly wither† and that they, like the virgins, will die â€Å"even as the meanest flower.† However, these stanzas’ show another side of Herrick which, four hundred years after these poems were written, is not quite as popular. To the modern reader, who may regard these stanzas as sexist, might find these final verses as an anti climax. After three beautifully lyrical verses of flowers and rising suns, a final stanza describing marriage as a woman’s greatest ambition is not going to appeal to the career woman of the 21st century. So why, then, are these poems still popular in our modern times? The answer is quite simply that the earlier  verses with their simple imagery and the parallels of the sun and flowers make up for a somewhat dated ideology. Flowers though are not the only use of symbolism in Herrick’s writings. The sun and its daily path of sunrise and sunset has also featured in some of his poems. For example in â€Å"To the Virgins† the second stanza begins: â€Å"As yet the early-rising sun Has not attain’d his noon.† This shows how the suns rising and setting are used to symbolize the cycle of life. Perhaps not an uncommon thing in literature or religion, but effective as it not only parallels life and death but it also holds links to the idea of heaven and eternal life – an ironic feature in poems about mortality. The connection with heaven is evident in â€Å"To the Virgins† when in verse two Herrick states: â€Å"The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun The higher he’s a getting The sooner will his race be run And nearer he is to setting.† What Herrick is saying here is that time is wearing on and that life is drawing to a close for the sun is almost setting on a day and on a life. However it is the first line in this stanza – â€Å"The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun† – that is the most effective. It has connotations with God, the land of eternal youth and happiness – the immortality that does not exist in our physical world. The word â€Å"glorious† makes the sun seem dazzling, brilliant, and because â€Å"glory† is also a biblical term, it echoes this link with God and heaven. â€Å"Lamp† though is a curious term to be used to describe something of such importance and beauty. Yet it works, for the sun is the  light of Heaven, which all people hope to be our final destination and homeland. Roger B Rollin says in his study of Herricks’ poetry that the rules of the atmosphere mirror the rules of all life – whether it be animal or plant, and that we are f ated to die before we come to our prime. This argument is extremely accurate as the sun’s daily routine of rising and setting is a mirror of human life that begins in child hood and ends in a withering old age. As Herrick has used symbolism and imagery expertly in his work he has created many beautiful poems which, despite outdated views on the role of women in society, remain favourite verses in this modern world of equal opportunity. Another reason though, why Herrick’s poems are still popular today is his cultural experimentation: namely the influence of Greek and classical mythology in his writings. Greek mythology, which appears frequently in Herrick’s writings, has greatly influenced his poetry. H. R. Swardson says: â€Å"all the girls are Antheas and Julias and Corinnas and even the ‘sea-scourged merchant’ is going to Ithaca.† In fact such is this influence that some critiques suggest that it shows a devotion to the pagan spirit. However as Robert H Denning states: â€Å"It is a humanistic fusion which is neither exclusively Christian nor classical-pagan, but rather an imaginative blend.† This â€Å"imaginative blend† creates what Denning describes as â€Å"ceremonial universality† – meaning that the poem can appeal ceremonially to all faiths and generations. This is most clearly seen in â€Å"Corinna’s Going A Maying† where classical myths are used in harmony with more Christian ideas and rituals to describe the idyllic English countryside in spring. For example, in the first stanza Herrick describes the birds as singing â€Å"hymns† and it being a â€Å"sin† to still be inside at Dawn. However, whilst these two references are plainly Christian the description of the â€Å"Titan† on the eastern hill is distinctly classical. The celebration of May is also heaped in lore as its many myths show that it is a pagan festival about fertility when sexual relations, which were generally not accepted in Herrick’s day,  were tolerated. May Day is used in â€Å"Corinna’s Gone A Maying† as a celebration of youth. This is effective as May Day is the gathering of spring and spring is youth. This is evident in the poem as Herrick writes: â€Å"There’s not a budding boy or girl this day But is got up and gone to bring in May; A deal of youth, ere this, is come† This describes the festive spirit of the occasion: a mood that is portrayed so often in Herrick’s writings. By depicting the boys and girl’s as â€Å"budding† he reflects the setting of the warm spring day and the flowers opening in the sun of May. Herrick also shows that it is a celebration of youth by saying it is the boys and girls getting up and describing the youth as coming to bring in May. However the moral holiday is evident later in the poem when Herrick says: â€Å"Many a kiss, both odd and even; Many a glance, too, has been sent From out the eye, love’s firmament† This part of the poem exhibits the social looseness of May Day as Herrick illustrates the flirtatious nature of the day by describing how the kisses are both â€Å"odd and even† which gives the impression that many advances have been made that day. Also, by writing how love has been sealed by looks from â€Å"out the eye† Herrick shows the festivity and the sexual nature of the day. Swardson suggests though, that Herrick is only able to create this relaxed atmosphere in a strict society because â€Å"†¦the classical framework or setting allows a temporary suspension of Christian standards. It may provide, in the modern phrase, a ‘moral holiday'† . In other words, because Herrick uses both strict Christian doctrines and the more liberal atmosphere of pagan May Day and classical ideas he is able to write a poem using looser  morals than would normally be allowable. This ‘moral holiday’ that Swardson describes is essential in Carpe Diem poetry for Christian guidelines generally promoted patience, simplicity and in some factions it discouraged the art of merry making. Herrick though, uses the looser principles of Paganism along in harmony with Christianity to create a legitimate, but festive setting. The festive setting is fundamental in Herricks’ poetry as he uses it to mirror the idea of living life to the full and seizing the day. This technique is evident in â€Å"To Live Merrily and to Trust to Good Verses† as once more classical mythology plays its part. This poem is about the ‘ceremony of mirth’ and uses mythology to create as in â€Å"Corrinna’s Gone a Maying†, a loose and festive setting in which to portray the theme of seizing the day. â€Å"To Live Merrily and to Trust to Good Verses† follows typical Herrick structure in its simplicity and lyrical style. Each verse toasts a classical writer like Homer. However the poem starts by describing the flowering earth. â€Å"Now is the time for mirth, Nor cheek or tongue be dumb; For with the flow’ry earth The golden pomp is come.† Swardson says in his article â€Å"Herrick and the Ceremony of Mirth† that the festivity of the moment is associated with the flowering of the earth (spring). This is evidently very similar to Corinna’s Gone A Maying which also uses the gaiety of May Day as a platform for the theme of seizing the day. The theme of this poem is slightly different than others though as Herrick recognizes that there is an element of immortality in writing – after all Homer and Ovid were all writers many centuries before and yet they were alive in Herrick’s day , and are still alive in ours through their art. Swardson describes this by saying: â€Å"Death is conquered not by renouncing the ‘frail world’ whose beauty dies, in favour of an everlasting other world, but by realizing most successfully the beauty and mirth in the natural world. Thus you do not abjure verses but ‘trust to good verses’.† Swardson explains how by recognizing the magnificence of this temporary world, rather than be loyal to that of the next you can become immortal. This is evident in his poetry as it consistently conveys the beauty of the world. Therefore Herrick sees his poetry as immortalizing himself. The poem â€Å"His Poetry His Pillar† displays this theory as it describes how Herrick fears ensuing death and hopes that his poetry shall remain when he is gone. This is an uncommon idea in Carpe Diem poetry. The majority of writers in this movement wrote poems that seemed â€Å"as fleeting as life and youth themselves† in the hope of convincing their lover to cast caution to the wind. The Sonneteers though, wrote poetry for a reason similar to Herrick – in the hope that they and their loves could become immortal. Part of â€Å"To Live Merrily and to Trust to Good Verses† festivity though, is due to its structure. The majority of Herrick’s poetry uses a simple ABAB rhyme scheme, and â€Å"To Live Merrily† is no exception. Although the poem is longer than the majority of Herrick’s poetry (which is usually no more than four verses long) is simple rhyme scheme and flowing verse help to mirror the party atmosphere in which the poem is set. The majority of Herrick’s poetry is lyrical – short and songlike. Most of his poems are no more than four verses and use only six to seven syllables per line. This factor, and the simple rhyme scheme create a quick and fast flowing lyrical verse. This is apparent in the poem â€Å"To a Bed of Tulips†. â€Å"Bright Tulips, we do know You had you’re coming hither And fading time does know That ye must quickly wither.† This technique results in a poem that is short and to the point (another similarity between Herrick and his fellow Cavaliers). This simple, song-like rhythm and rhyme scheme are very effective as they help to create that joyful party atmosphere that is so well portrayed in â€Å"To Live Merrily† and to Trust to Good Verses†. However another interpretation sometimes offered is that this flowing rhythm mirrors the reality of mortality. Critic Gordon Braden describes Herrick’s lyrical style as almost childlike for he says in his book â€Å"The Classics and English Renaissance Poetry† that Herrick’s poetry is like: â€Å"That of childlike discovery and amazement, a short but bright faculty of attention continually distracted by something new.† This is evident as in â€Å"To the Virgins† each parallel – the sun, flowers, the description of youth – are all dealt with quickly before Herrick begins his new channel of thought. The idea of Herricks’ poetry as being child-like in aspects is also evident in his subject matter as although his theme is serious, his glorification of the sun and of the festive party atmosphere creates something more playful and fun. Yet not all Herrick’s lyrical poems comply with the same structure. â€Å"To Blossoms† and â€Å"To Daffodils† are both slightly more erratic and complex in rhythm and rhyme. â€Å"To Blossoms† consists of one stanza of eighteen lines, its rhyme scheme is In â€Å"To Daffodils† we have two stanzas of eleven lines with only the occasional rhyme such as â€Å"soon† and â€Å"noon† and â€Å"spring† and â€Å"thing.† The number of syllables in these two poems is also not consistent. In â€Å"To Blossoms† lines range from having four to eight syllables and in â€Å"To Daffodils† there is from two to seven. These poems, you assume on first glance, would have a more rambling rhythm rather than flowing style of the majority of Herrick’s other poems, and yet when read the poems retain Herrick’s musical sound. This is maintained simply by the combination of both styles. For example at the start of â€Å"To Daffodils† we have his more regular sound: â€Å"Fair Daffodils, we weep to see You haste away so soon As yet the early rising sun Has not attained his noon.† This first part of the poem uses the iambic foot. What this means is that the stresses fall on every second syllable and therefore when reading the poem the stresses always fall on the last word at each line creating a sing song effect that suits Herrick’s lyrical style. However in the second part of the poem: instead of using his regular structure he uses a cross between long and short lines using enjambment. For example lines five to seven use a pattern of one six syllable line sandwiched between two, two syllable lines. This part of the poem is particularly effective as by putting â€Å"Stay, stay† twice on the one line the speaker sounds more urgently pleading as thought the daffodils would wither away before his eyes unless he begged them not to. This structure of the two part stanza is repeated in the second verse as once more it begins with Herrick’s usual lyrical form, before changing in the latter half to a more irregular one. This second half of the stanza uses enjambment to put an emphasis on certain words. â€Å"We die As your hours do, and dry Away† The way the words â€Å"We die† are placed on their own line reminds the reader that we share the same fate as the daffodils. The effect is mirrored with the word â€Å"away† and by putting this emphasis on these words it creates a more drumming rhythm. The manner in which the word â€Å"Away† is put onto a line  of its own suggests the hollow finality of death. â€Å"To Blossoms† uses a similar technique as â€Å"To Daffodils† as once more there is a contrast between long and short lines ranging from eight syllables to four. The rhyme scheme is also slightly more complex with an ABBCCB structure. These factors help to produce a slightly more interesting rhythm as it speeds up and slows down. For example in Stanza 1: Fair pledges of a fruitful tree Why do ye fall so fast? Your date is not so past† The longer line followed by the two shorter lines creates a fast first two lines, but when typical Herrick structure dictates that line two should be followed by a another line of eight syllables and it does not then it creates a slower rhythm which makes line three stand out. This is evident to a greater extent of the last lines of each stanza, which are also the shortest at only four syllables. The lines â€Å"And go at last† and â€Å"Into the grave† are the most noticeable of these. The words â€Å"Into the grave† end the poem on a chilling note. The fact that the poem is fairly fast paced up until that point means that the words are given a particular stress and reveal a particularly sudden and abrupt end – the very nature of life. Herrick reflects the relative simplicity of his narrative with an exceedingly uncomplicated structure, both with rhyme and rhythm. Even his more complicated verses still hold the musical quality that his simpler poems contain. This is one of Herricks’ merits as an over adorned structure would clash with the content and would ruin his poetry. On the other hand, when he ventures slightly outwith his simplistic sphere he creates very effective structures that help to emphasis the theme as can be seen in â€Å"To Daffodils† and â€Å"To Blossoms†. In conclusion it is evident that Herrick uses structure, symbolism and an  interesting blend of religious ceremonies in his exploration of the theme Carpe Diem. Through the simplicity in the rhythm and rhyme of his poems, Herrick has invoked the fleeting quality of life and the beauty of the world we live in. These two ideas are portrayed in the content of these poems through the use of symbolism and imagery. Yet the reason why Herrick, despite having somewhat dated opinions on the role of women, is still a poet of our time is because of his simplicity and â€Å"ceremonial universality†. To describe his poetry one would have to say â€Å"simple but beautiful†, for throughout his writings Herrick pays homage to the flowering of the earth and uses it to show how brief and temporary our presence is a parallel that all can understand. Herrick’s blend of different cultures and religions in his writing has also helped to immortalize him as it gave his poetry an acceptable but care free moral tone that remains relevant and enjoyable today. Bibliography A. Leigh Deneef This Poetick Leturgie Duke University Press 1974 ISBN 082230323X H.R Swardson Poetry and the Fountain of Light Allen and Unwin ISBN: 0048210161 1962 Robert H. Denning Robert Herrick’s Classical Ceremony John Hopkin’s University Press 1967 Roger B. Rollin Robert Herrick Twayne Publishers 1992 ISBN 0805770127 Sarah Gilead Ungathering Ye Rosebuds: Herrick’s misreading of Carpe Diem Critisism: A Quarterly for Literature and the Arts 1985 Other Resources Used Websites: http://www.luminarium.org http://people.whitman.edu/~dipasqtm/herrick.htm http://athena.english.vt.edu/~jmooney/renmats/cavaliers.htm http://www.bartleby.com/217/0107.html http://encarta.msn.com/text_761566707___2/Versification.html

WEB Du Bois essays

WEB Du Bois essays WEB Du Bois was born a free man in his small village of Great Barington, Massachusetts, three years after the Civil War. For generations, the Du Bois family had been an accepted part of the community since before his great-grandfather had fought in the American Revolution. Early on, Du Bois was given an awareness of his African-heritage, through the ancient songs his grandmother taught him. This awareness set him apart from his New England community, with an ancestry shrouded in mystery, in sharp contrast to the precisely accounted history of the Western world. This difference would be the foundation for his desire to change the way African-Americans co-existed in America. As a student, Du Bois was considered something of a prodigy who excelled beyond the capabilities of his white peers. He found work as a correspondent for New York newspapers, and slowly began to realize the inhibitions of social boundaries he was expected to observe every step of the way. When racism tried to take his pride and dignity, he became more determined to make sure society recognized his achievements. Clearly, Du Bois showed great promise, and some influential members of his community. Although Du Bois dreamt of attending Harvard, these influential individuals arranged for his education at Fisk University in Nashville. His experiences at Fisk changed his life, and he discovered his fate as a leader of the black struggle to free his people from oppression. At Fisk, Du Bois became acquainted with many sons and daughters of former slaves, who felt the pain of oppression and shared his sense of cultural and spiritual tradition. In the South, he saw his people being driven to a status of little difference from slavery, and saw them terrorized at the polls. He taught school during the summers in the eastern portion of Tennessee, and saw the suffering firsthand. He then resolved to dedicate his life to fighting the terrible racial oppression that held the black p...

Congress Members Services to Constituents

Congress Members Services to Constituents While they may not always vote the way you think they should, the members of the U.S. Congress from your state or congressional district - Senators and Representatives can and will do some very useful things known as constituent services for you. While most can be requested or arranged for through your Senator’s or Representative’s website, these and other services can be requested in a  personal letter  or in a  face-to-face meeting  with your members of Congress.   Get a Flag Flown Over the Capitol U.S. flags that have actually been flown over the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C., can be ordered from all senators and representatives. Flags are available in sizes ranging from 3x5 to 5x8 and cost from about $17.00 to about $28.00. You can request a specific date, like a birthday or anniversary, on which you want your flag flown. 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Get a Special Greeting Card Last but far from least, you can request a very nice, personalized greeting card from your senator or representative commemorating special events like birthdays, anniversaries, graduations or other life achievements. Many members of Congress now provide online forms for ordering greetings and most allow you to order greetings by phone or fax. Help With a Federal Agency Helping citizens navigate the complex federal agency system is part of the job for U.S. Senators and Representatives. Their offices may be able to help if you are having trouble working with the Social Security Administration, the Department of Veterans Affairs, the IRS or any other federal agency.

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Reconstruction Act essays The reconstitution is the process of rebuilding that followed the American Civil War (1861-1865). Since this was the first civil war the United States had experienced, there were a lot of questions dealing with what to do with the South after the defeat of the Confederacy and the overthrow of slavery. The debate of these questions began during the war and continued for decades. This time period was known as the Reconstitution and was from 1865 to 1877. This period began with onset of an intense national struggle over the society and government in the postwar South, and ended with the fall of the last Southern State governments under Republican control. The federal attempt to remake the South was over. Early in the war, the important issue of reconstitution emerged and attracted attention as the northern victory neared. As Union forces gained large areas of the South, both Union commanders and the federal government were forced to make decisions on how these areas should be administered. The federal officials chose to experiment with sending Northern missionaries to set up schools, have former slaves be employed as contract labor, and whites loyal to the Union to organize new state governments under the federal control. President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation by January 1, 1863 that freed all slaves that were in rebel held areas. The Norths war aims were now shifted from preserving the Union to remaking the South. Many Northerners felt that the South should be remade into a society that was based on free labor, equal rights, and the republican form of government. Early in 1865, before the war ended, the 13th Amendment to the Constitution was passed by the Congress in January. This amendment expanded on the prior Emancipation Proclamation by abolishing slavery throughout the United States. General William T. Sherman also issued t ...

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To what extent do historians own history - Essay Example While one may often mistakenly assume that history is actually in black and white, it is quite clear that when historians write down history, they do mainly according to the various social practices and policies of the country at the time (2002). It is often up to the historians to help in determining the extent to which history will ultimately be rewritten (Foner, 2002). Oscar Wilde is credited as having once said that the one duty of the persons that happen to own history is to ensure that they rewrite it. Arguably, it has been claimed that modern historians have undertaken to fulfilling this aspect of their work a little too well. This is exemplified by the fact that in the modern day society, there is a large number of people who as opposed to celebrating the rather exciting anniversary of Columbus’ discovery of the American continent, instead choose to mourn Columbus Day by choosing to remember it as a genocidal invasion of the continent by large numbers of White Europeans (Marsh 61). In contrast to the branding of murderer by some modern day historians, the popular perception of Columbus was quite different a hundred years ago when during the 400th celebration of Columbus’ arrival in the New World, Presid ent Benjamin Harrison paid tribute to Columbus and referred to his as the pioneer of both enlightenment and progression. In a similar vein, the American Indians who had previously been portrayed as being an extremely cruel and savage race, have now undergone a historical reprisal that has seen them often being pictured as being a being an extremely peaceful people that strive to live in constantly harmony with their natural environment. In light of this change in the manner in which the past is recounted, Foner (2002) points out that although historical truths do happen to exist, it is often seen that the most difficult

Commercial Real Estate Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Commercial Real Estate Development - Essay Example The current trend as indicated in the recently published, Estate Gazette Feb 2009 states the impact of the economic downturn which has resulted in very low pent up demand as not many can afford to do so and who did have already traded . Location, layout, storey of building, area, height, storage space, interior decoration and construction framework, possibility to sub lease, inter changeability of formats, ownership distribution, availability of utilities, central air conditioning, and the level of management fee. Each of these factors will be elaborated in detail further, which will help in correctly inferring that supply and demand are not the sole factors affecting the value of commercial real estate and its development and regeneration. Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) gained popularity because of rising crimes, emerging anti social behavior and the environmental problems. In London this evolved as a quite recent phenomenon where the formal drive occurred for the first time in April 2001. Earlier some private were operating already, but then the government announced its very first. Schemes like Town Centre Management had started in 1980s, which were a part of public private partnerships for the benefit of businesses and other stake holders. Since concept of Business Improvement Districts kicked off as a tool for financing the revamping of residential neighbor hoods. Later Government in the Environment Committee of the House of Commons took up a project termed as town improvement zones, this was a bold move for the regeneration of inner city areas. Then in December 2001, further favor in these kind of zones was given Labour Government's white paper Strong Leadership Quality Public Services and this was in reali ty the first step towards urban regeneration policy. In 2003 testing was started with some areas - towns and cities, labeled as pilot locations, aimed at discovering the methodology to be adopted in making a Business Improvement District scheme a success; process and experience for managing and evaluating. Following this testing stage, government passed a resolution in 2004. As earlier mentioned, possibility of sub lease affects the value of a commercial real estate development which will now be further elaborated. Since restrictions on sub leasing affects the flexibility of further renting out a property and thus hugely affects. Since there are two sources of return from property - one, the savings that comes in the form of opportunity cost too and another from the rental income that is earned when property is given to be utilized by someone else. And unlike other assets, since property does not depreciate but there is always a hope of potential development and there is always a risk and return that is uncertain how these returns will move in future. All developers and investors base their decisions on number of factors - current income and future return generation capacity. Leasing patterns have a great impact on the development and regeneration of the commercial real estate. This is visible from the 1989 UK's market crash which tended to change the relationship that earlier governed between landlords and business tenants (Estates Gazette). Earlier it was

See Below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 10

See Below - Essay Example Both theories have their merits and demerits. According to Roderick (part 5), Kantian ethics are an empty content. This is because it is dependent on what an individual is willing to will. Utilitarianism too has a problem. The theory seems to infringe on our sense of justice. Also, the two theories seem to ignore so many things in our lives including family, friends, special relations, and other relations that exist. The strong point of Kantian ethics is that they are based on fairness. For example, if executions are to be screened on television, then this might bring greater happiness since it will reduce crime. But, it is not fair to the individual or the individual’s family. Therefore, while Kantian ethics capture fairness, utilitarianism captures real decision making and content. This is because most of our decisions are based on bringing happiness, and hence this makes the theory of utilitarianism more practical and applicable during our everyday

Commercial Real Estate Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Commercial Real Estate Development - Essay Example The current trend as indicated in the recently published, Estate Gazette Feb 2009 states the impact of the economic downturn which has resulted in very low pent up demand as not many can afford to do so and who did have already traded . Location, layout, storey of building, area, height, storage space, interior decoration and construction framework, possibility to sub lease, inter changeability of formats, ownership distribution, availability of utilities, central air conditioning, and the level of management fee. Each of these factors will be elaborated in detail further, which will help in correctly inferring that supply and demand are not the sole factors affecting the value of commercial real estate and its development and regeneration. Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) gained popularity because of rising crimes, emerging anti social behavior and the environmental problems. In London this evolved as a quite recent phenomenon where the formal drive occurred for the first time in April 2001. Earlier some private were operating already, but then the government announced its very first. Schemes like Town Centre Management had started in 1980s, which were a part of public private partnerships for the benefit of businesses and other stake holders. Since concept of Business Improvement Districts kicked off as a tool for financing the revamping of residential neighbor hoods. Later Government in the Environment Committee of the House of Commons took up a project termed as town improvement zones, this was a bold move for the regeneration of inner city areas. Then in December 2001, further favor in these kind of zones was given Labour Government's white paper Strong Leadership Quality Public Services and this was in reali ty the first step towards urban regeneration policy. In 2003 testing was started with some areas - towns and cities, labeled as pilot locations, aimed at discovering the methodology to be adopted in making a Business Improvement District scheme a success; process and experience for managing and evaluating. Following this testing stage, government passed a resolution in 2004. As earlier mentioned, possibility of sub lease affects the value of a commercial real estate development which will now be further elaborated. Since restrictions on sub leasing affects the flexibility of further renting out a property and thus hugely affects. Since there are two sources of return from property - one, the savings that comes in the form of opportunity cost too and another from the rental income that is earned when property is given to be utilized by someone else. And unlike other assets, since property does not depreciate but there is always a hope of potential development and there is always a risk and return that is uncertain how these returns will move in future. All developers and investors base their decisions on number of factors - current income and future return generation capacity. Leasing patterns have a great impact on the development and regeneration of the commercial real estate. This is visible from the 1989 UK's market crash which tended to change the relationship that earlier governed between landlords and business tenants (Estates Gazette). Earlier it was

Promote Professional Development Essay Example for Free

Promote Professional Development Essay 1.1It is very important to always continue learning and training as this will always give good practice,this can be done through training courses, when starting with the company we all undertake mandatory training and this will be followed up by refreshing each course yearly or as and when needed, staffs in their supervision will be asked if they would like to take up and advanced courses and also we would also discuss about what training needs to be refreshed. Staffs also need to have a good understanding as to why they are taking the training course and how it will benefit them. 1.2When doing any type off training we will always come up against barriers this could be anything from getting time to fit the training in amongst our busy work schedule some staff do a varied shift pattern/family life/money/resources so when looking at training we need to look at the best way to do this and the way the training will be carried out, We need to ensure that staffs will turn up to do the training which has been planned and that it will be easy for them to get to the training as some training can be far away and not easy to attend. Staffs can be put off by the training if they are not familiar with the surroundings where they are attending. 1.3When taking up any kind of professional development we need to look at the best way to do this and how the organisation will support us, training could be done on the internet but then we need to look at the resources needed for example computers/printer/internet connection/a good quiet room/office to be able to sit down and do the training ,we would also have to look at the books that would be of use and available to the studies, if taking up in house or external training we could use mentors or a buddy scheme to work beside the member off staff this will be a very good way to support staff while they are doing their training and will encourage them along their way, and support them this is very reassuring for the person when stepping out of their comfort zone as many people feel uncomfortable when taking up any type of training courses. 1.4We need to look at what is revelant when doing training and is it really needed who will need to do it and where it will be done, Do we have the resources do we have the money, how we will implement the course, at the same time we need to think on the positive side and if the training is for good practice them it should be funded and all staff should carry it out as this will promote good practice and knowledge, it is always important to keep up to speed with the changes that are taking place, as times are always changing. 2.1As a manager it is good to evaluate my own knowledge and keep up to date with good practice this would be by keeping up with monthly supervisions/appraisals also to keep in touch with me superior and up to speed with the changes going on within the company and the outside, policy and procedures must always be updated and kept, sometimes keeping on top off all the daily/weekly/monthly paper work can be a real challenge as we all have very busy work schedules and things like policy and procedures are changing all the time and rules and regulations are also changing organisations paper work can be very challenging as this must be kept up to date. 2.2 We need to look at our personal development and how we can prioritise to develop our skills and knowledge and to work by the standards expected of us, we need to think as to where we want to be and how far we can push ourselves to work at best practice , This can be done by talking with our line manager and discussing what training we would like and also discuss further development within our job role or promotion within the company, we have to belief in ourselves and our values to be able to promote the best practice and give our best service so progression is always good. 3.1When we look at taking/or applying any kind of training we need to look at the bigger picture we need to look at our staff individualy and look at the best way for them to be able to progress and develop, some workers could have a language barrier so we would need to address this when applying personal development, this could be by sending them on a language course or it could be a case of a using a visual way of learning. 3.2S W A T analysis is a good tool for looking at our organisations strengths weaknesses opportunities and threats. Even as an employee this can be a good tool to use and asses a person and their needs, We can also use supervision/appraisals to look at an individuals development plan, and how this could be looked at, This would be able to keep us on tract and keep regular meeting to discuss the progress and development of that member off staff and to see as to what training or development they would require and help and support that they would need. 3.3Within supervision we could look at how the person was progressing and how they were achieving their goals was they getting on ok with their challenges or would they need more support, a mentor or a colleague/manager to support them and to maybe guide them. This could be a good way of monitoring their progress and also help them to be more confident within their challenges. 4.1There are many different learning styles that we can look at to reflect good practice, David A Kolb is a professor of organizational behaviour, Reflective observation: reflecting on the event or experience . what went well ? . what did not go well ? . Did anything unexpected occur ? . How do u feel about the experience now ? Professor Graham Gibbs broke reflective process down in clear stages . description of the situation . analysis of the situation . evaluation of the experience . analysis to make sense of the situation . conclusion where other options are considered . Action plan for future learning and development plan. Professor Chris Johns model breaks down the reflective process down into 5 key stages . Reflection . influencing factors . Evaluation . Learning . The reflective account provides evidence for (list which units will meet) 4.2It is good to use reflective practice to improve performance because it enables us to write effectively to complete our qualification, one of the common problems with reflective writing is that it can be overly descriptive and lacking analysis. 4.3It is always good to have someone else look at your work to see if there is anything they can see that you have missed or to maybe even make suggestions to you that you might have passed by or even suggest to you another way of working to help improve you performance, two heads are better than one. 4.4Practice has been improved by reflection of good practice by using tape recordings, documenting achievements and mistakes we learn by our mistakes so its always good to hear negative feedback so we can look at what we have done wrong and correct this this gives us time to reflect on good and bad practice.

Credit Rating Agency: Impacts of Regulatory Changes

Credit Rating Agency: Impacts of Regulatory Changes How rating agencies operate, and recent regulatory changes. Credit rating agency is a private company that is assigned to detect the creditworthiness of businesses, individuals or other organizations. It uses very many factors to assess the ability of the borrowers to repay their debts. It is majorly based on the borrowers solvency. The main instruments rated by the rating agency are the government bonds, corporate bonds, stocks exchange, municipal bonds and security collaterals. These obligations to assess the creditworthiness is issued by the companies especially banks in order to give loans to other business or companies. The agencies have been in practice for a long period since the 20th century. The agencies have certain regulations that governance its operations. This work explores the activities of credit rating agency how they operate and reasonable regulations that have changed recently (White, 2010). The main purpose of the rating agencies is to give the rating to businesses that issue debts, which involve Private Corporation and the national government and other forms of government. The agency has proved to be important in the lending, and the financial industry as information is for the investors to demand to receive adequate compensation for the risk involved in any particular investment is critical (White, 2010). Investors take into account the credit rating to help manage the range. Lower rating translates to greater lending risk by a lender. In consideration of the market trends, the investors may lend at larger rates in higher risk to protect against the risks thus, having an overall effect of raising the lending rates. Credit rating agency is also essential as the information they provide are used to determine the interest to be charged on loans given or possible returns expected. Business with a low rating and high risk would attract high-interest rate while the high rating and low risk would attract the low-interest rates. The investor seeks such opinions from the rating agencies in order to make appropriate investment decisions. In history, as from the beginning of the 20th century, three companies, Fitch, Moody, and standard and poors were formed to help the investors to access the ability of other individual be able to repay loan or assistance given to the by such institutions. For Fetch, it had a unique characteristic of publishing its finding on the stock and bonds financial statistics. The standard and poor it had the same approach as for the Fitch Moodys company but was a bit different, as it was proving its rating on the government bonds. The companies help so many organization and business to consolidate their asset and operation thus improving lending among the companies (Pinto, 2006). Creditworthiness, being the capability and willingness to make full payment of debt in required time, some companies due to financial constrain cannot be able to make such commitments. In order to determine the timely debt payment a number of factors are considered, the financial risk, industry risk, business and risks associated with management. This factors if not put into consideration a business cannot repay the debt. With the factor in place, certain criteria are used to assess the credit rating process (White, 2010). In order for any business to repay debt, the venture should be able to generate sufficient cash to fund all its operation and still have the excess to be used for the repayment of the credit. And the most important is the ability to repay the debts in full within the stipulated time happens is what most credit rating the companys main point of interest (Pinto, 2006). Certain factors are use in determining the rating for businesses, these factors considered can be grouped as either qualitative or quantitative. These factors also depend on the type of business in question. Different businesses have different fundaments and management structures. The environment of operations also marks an important factor. Business can prosper quickly or perform poorly based on the area it is situated. The industry in which the company operates is also important as some industries attract more risk than others or have a varying degree of requirements to run. The extent of market dominance as it provides the positions and influence in its operations. With all these factors in place, its possible to determine and make a comparison between the financial and business risk (Pinto, 2006). Quality analysis The environment of operation is coupled with the company itself before rating the company. It is important to have a detailed analysis of any operating risk of the issuer which involves its internal and the external business environment. Then there is analysis to evaluate the financial risk involved. Assessing the financial risks would help to keep the potential of the firm to repay the depths. Industry An industry in which the issuer is active determines the external factors in which the business can be successful, or it can fail to perform in. This gives the credit a platform in which it can assess the business qualitatively. The rating takes into consideration the mode of the company cycle and its volatility as it a tool for the long-term assessment of the capabilities to repay the loan or debts involved. In this case, the level of capital intensity and competitiveness make the critical business environment; It influences the rating since in most scenarios these factors impacts on the cash flow within the firm and the timely debt repayment (Pinto, 2006). To arrive at a rating, a real business profiling is conducted which involve in-depth analysis of the finances and the business itself; this profile is in conjunction with the riskiness in the particular industry. If a company operates in a relatively risky industry there a possibility of slightly lower rating irrespective its of the financial performance (Pinto, 2006). To case study on the industry, an oilfield service company is considered. The industry involves the companies that drill, provide oil services and gas exploration. These companies do suffer if done profile do not incur financial risk, but in case it is there its in low level, but instead, they have the business risk. Its characterized by the firms being highly specialized thus limited product are offered, the risk they are involved in are hard to avoid, the risks are spillages, contaminations, environmental risks and political risk. There is no barrier to entries posting possibility of stiff competition among other critical factors. The business risk assessment; the size of the rating would be able to tell if it will be able to withstand the petroleum price that is extremely volatile. In these feeds of operations, the economies of scale matter a lot since for the business with large sizes are not significantly affected by the changing prices. Other factors that are used include; operating efficiency which involves the cost of operation and the influence due to the ever-changing prices, capital intensity, sovereign governance, and the corporate governance. Other important factors considered are contractual position, diversification in customers, environmental factors and workforce enterprise (Pinto, 2006). In the rating, the financial and the business risk are blended to come up with the best rating. In most case, in such an industry the business risks are more than the financial risk. However, at some low level of rating the financial risk take precedence to environmental factors. The position in the market Market position in most cases may override if the business that operates in highly competitive environment which happen when assessing the industry. The critical factors to be considered include, the ability to influence or maintains prices in the market, for the sake of customers who are key and the products are diversified, in case there is competitiveness in the market and above all to what the business market share (Pinto, 2006). Taking business size into consideration only is only helpful in rating if the size has an influence on the cash flow regarding cost, operation efficiency, and the economies of scale which mainly experienced in oil industry explained above. Market position is, therefore, important in gauging the ability to cope with changes or disruption factor influencing its existence. If a business is a dominant business in a particular environment, it means that the firm can easily carry its operations but still manage to pay its debts obligations within time. This is because such business has a broad customer base so they can have good returns within a short period. Assessing based finance would give high results result. Business management The way business is managed greatly determines the creditworthiness. The analyst would consider the management skills in their ratings. Excellent managerial skills to business have many benefits to the success of the firm. However, in rating management, it is evaluated in more comprehensive perspective more than just operational success. The tolerance is a critical determinant. Tolerance in business manage is the ability to sustain the business running despite other factors that may hinder smooth business operation. Factors that would rate the company include maintaining market positions with a well-established managements track record, the long-term financial performance of the venture, having established efficient operating system form the basis of qualitative analysis if the rating. Rating base on management further takes into consideration the following. The company policy, establishment of policies should be in line with the objective of the business. These should stipulate the financial risks that are involved and incase the do exist, the appropriate ways to mitigate them. An analyst would particular concentrate on the financial risk polices created by the company. Organizational considerations The senior management plays a significant role in determining the success of the business. The management is the core decision makers, and the analyst relies most on the decisions they make to run the decision. The number of people involved in the process of decision making and the frequency of its adjustments. Problem crops in when old decision are still being used to influence a business that is in an ever changing market trends. Adding to risk tolerance, the reliability and credibility in determining the creditworthiness are based on the tolerance. Businesses which are at high-risk financial aid are starting businesses. So many challenges are normally encountered in the business before it gains stability especially in a highly competitive environment. If the management can sustain such constraints and still be able to repay a particular loan with a stipulated time, then such a business could earn a higher rating in the credit rating agency (Pinto, 2006). Management strategy, any successful business should be able to anticipate the future base on its past and present. Having a short and long term strategies that predict the future and maintaining the strategies chosen to form the best platform for analysis. The short term plans short be engineered to ensuring maximum earnings to the business (Langohr Langohr, 2010). Quality analysis of corporate governance firms Still, on the management of corporate firm have a bit complex management compared to other business as it has many people involve in senior management position forming the board of management of which must participate in decision making of affirms. The board should be effective. To ensure the effectiveness of the board its primary role of oversight and ability is important. Once the decisions have been made, then its implementation is by junior members. The analysis focuses on the capacity of the board to have a big oversight that would see smooth operation with emphasis on incentivizing management in the execution of the financial responsibilities (Langohr, Langohr, 2010). The board should also be independent. An independent director would participate in decision management with a clear focused mind. Those executives with some degree of loyalty to their seniors do not make rational decisions as their decisions are influence by their relations which may set back the corporate especially its finances which the main point of focus in the rating Financial discipline and accountability is another major consideration by the credit rating of the business. Factors that are considered are the compensations within the organization. A corporate which grants remuneration far above what is normal in the market is likely to have low ratings. Money transaction among the stakeholders such as top management, the sister companies and between shareholder cannot be trusted as accountability is likely to be a problem (Langohr Langohr, 2010). Companies or nations In rating countries or companies, the following factors are considered. The political risk; most companies do have internal politics. Business politics is good if it only it can embrace diversity and allows people to share their different ideas get synergize them together to come up with better solution or leadership to the business. In cases where bad politics is present, the probabilities of financial impropriates are high which would give a poor rating. National politics could lead to a country of peace which business operations are being carried on smoothly. In such an environment with political stability, a business can carry out its operations to get funds to pay their debt within time. This also applies to government borrowing. In case a country is in turmoil business are negatively affected thus their ability to repay their debts due to the risk involved is lowered therefore in such case the rating would relatively reduce irrespective of other factors. Regulatory risk; the laws that are enacted by countries are supposed to create a conducive environment for enabling business. The government should adopt policies or sign trade agreements that protect the local investments. In such as case, the economy grows allowing business and the government to repay loan. Some countries do enact monetary policies that act like a bullet shooting them in the foot. These policies may affect the countries internal and foreign investments. External risks: These risks relate to the treat such as wars or trade sanctions. A country that is engaged in war is at high risk of punishment by trading blocks and other external countries. In case a country receives such treat the implication is that its not able to carry any business with other nations. Which means it cannot be able to earn foreign exchange and which is used in repayment of government borrowings Fiscal risk; this depends on the balance between the government borrowing and expenditure. Is the government borrowing too much and spending away? Majorly the problem of over borrowing is common in third world countries in which the government officials are corrupt. Government borrowing is supposed to channeled to project that could create the return to help repay such loan. Countries with poor quality fiscal policies are rated lowly by the credit rating families. Economic risk; the economy of a country is determined by the gross domestic product. When there is a case of a poor economy such as the in a case of civil wars, the government cannot collect taxes, and there are cases of inflation which affect the countrys and companys ability to repay the loans(Pinto, 2006). Accounting Creditability and accountability of finances in an organization is shown by good accounting. The financial reporting is a clear indication that a business is financially disciplined. Credit institutions rely majorly on the accounting statements of a business. Accurate and transparent accounting books can motivate financial institution to grant credit facilities to business. On the rating, unclear books of accounting that could be as a result of interference by the management or workers have a negative implication on the assessment of the creditworthiness of the business. The agencies would also use the accounting theories in areas as depreciation, goodwill, consolidations and pension provisions that would demonstrate a true figure of financial performance (Pinto, 2006). Quantitative analysis Other than the qualitative analysis where there is detailed assessment of the finances is analyzed there is also a quantitative survey by the credit rating agencies. Quantitative analysis deals more with the cash generation ability of the issuers. To detect long-term sustainability an important ratio is considered, the profitability and the debt coverage ratio this requires the provision of financial projections for a period of next three or five years. The quantitative measure and development and trend are significant in the analysis. Profitability Profitability is determined a by a number of financial ratios. The ability to make profit is the main determinant of the level of credit protection and the degree of credit risk for investors. The potential to obtain capital internally and enter the external capital sources is directly proportional to the companys returns and operating margins. The margins i.e. operating income and sales provide the issuers profitability as a result of revenue growth excluding the profits. Comparisons are possible due to companies of the same level (Kisgen Strahan, 2010). Cash flow Payments of interest or principle are not made on the earnings Even though it seems to be connected to the profitability. When the operating cash flow is enough to services the debt and its operation that is the time it can be used to make payments. In credit rating methodology, cash flow is being taken as the most important as an essential part of the analysis. It is not possible to cover underperformance or loses through funds from external sources. Specific attention is on the extent the issuer depends on external funds and cashflow from operations. For companies to make future obligations, their cash flows are integral. It further focuses on the leverages, coverage, and earnings which are used accounting methods which are a particular and different valuation of assets. This implies that at no point it will mirror the correct financial position of the issuer and his ability to service the debt (Kisgen Strahan, 2010). Flexibility of finances When the company is under constrains, they react in a particular way shown by the financial flexibility. The rating checks at the debt serving during the time in which the finances are volatile in the business and in case the company could be having any other sources considered as external. The financial flexibility is directly proportional to funding options that are available for business. The flexibility in the finances is affected by the debt levels especially the short-term debts. Other effects to financial flexibility are loans with more restrictive terms, possibilities of legal issues, insurance covers missing and pensions which are not fully funded (Kisgen Strahan, 2010). Capital structure This is the dependence of business on the external source of funds. This highly affects the debt serving ability. If a company entirely depend on the external source, it is hard to predict how it would be able to repay the debt (Kisgen Strahan, 2010). Pros and cons Credit rating agencies like any other agency have pro and con in its operations. The advantages include they help institutions get better rates. For institutions with higher grades are in a position to borrow many at the rates which are favorable, it is a kind of an incentive to the businesses with good management and whose creditworthiness is not doubted. Help warn investors of risky companies; for the investors who want to invest in high risk, businesses are in a position to know the level of returns they expect from companies of low rating. It is due to this high risk that such investors are able to make surplus compared to the other normal investors. Provision for a room for improvement as a good incentive for the business rated poorly, it is an opportunity for them to realize the areas they should change in. A common challenge is that such businesses are normally in denial of their debt status. However, for those that accept do get advice as an incentive to their improvements. Since anything with advantage must have the other side, the cons of credit rating include evaluation being highly subjective; the rating between different companies varies considerably. This because there exist no known standard formula or guideline used by credit rating institutions in their work, the general rating is based on their judgments. The possibility of a conflict of reference: In making reference to cases in the department of justice USA where there was a possibility of a conflict of interest in mortgage-backed securities that collapse in 2008. The rating companies at times provide their services to companies which make the private request. However, they can make such rating and give to investors even if the requesting company still pays them. Conflict of interest to occur when the business does not a company is given good rating they do not deserve on the basis that this rating company wants to retain them as their customers (Mulligan, 2009). Lastly the ratings are in most cases not very accurate. For a long time the way the agencies rate have been subject to a lot of questioning. In as much as they do have a consistent rating, it does not translate to accurate rating. The inaccuracy can be case studied mortgage-backed securities that recessed despite the good rating it was given by then. New regulations on the credit rating agencies Reform Act has been enacted to with the aim of improving rating quality, investors protections and for the transparency, accountability, and competition in the credit rating market. I the USA the amendments geared toward the CRA include CRA reform act of 2006. The act raised the number of NRSRIs which lead to increase in competition among the CRA, in case there was no-action letter process in designation, then an agency can seek to designation by submitting applications to SEC with the new laws (Hill, 2012). The CRA companies were required with the new regulation to adopt NRSROs of particular policies and procedures which would prevent misuse of non-public information, materials and on the issue of management potential of interest; SEC was mandated to inspect these adoptions by the CRAs the new regulations further demand that NRSRIs are to provide their procedures and methodology in which they use to in rating, provide the SEC with information regarding quality of information, accuracy and reliability, including the information from the third parts used in rating the issuance, the NRSRO was to have board of director who is independent as they give internal control which implements, maintains and enforce the policies, methodologies, and procedures of credit rating. Right of action against ratings agencies can also be brought by the investors regarding the reckless failure to conduct a reasonable investigation of the fact or use of independent source to gain information. Qualifying exams and continuous education were enacted, and it was mandatory for the analyst to do and pass the exams. Other international agencies also such as the European Union also stipulated some of the rules for the rating agencies. The new rule seeks to reduce overreliance on credit rating, which specifically was dependent on the external rating but instead, financial institutions were to strengthen their risk assessment programs. The credit rating companies were to be more accountable for their activities in case there was intentionally or due to the negligence of other regulations. Conclusion The credit rating agency is important organs for the investor to base the decision in their rating as it gives the picture of the creditworthiness of the issuer. The investor can determine more accurately the returns from the investment and the risk involved in a particular investment plan. Financial institutions also can use the report from this agency to reduce the possibilities of high loan defaulters in their operation. However due to poor historical misconduct of some of the agencies and numerous disadvantages associated with such agencies companies have made losses and recesses as well. In line with this US government together other-other international bodies enacted laws and regulations to that strict governance the agencies and its operation by majorly making reference to mortgage-back securities. References       Hill, C. A. (2012). Regulating the rating agencies. Wash. ULQ, 82, 43. Kisgen, D. J., Strahan, P. E. (2010). Do regulations based on credit ratings affect a firms cost of capital?. Review of Financial Studies, hhq077. Langohr, H., Langohr, P. (2010). The rating agencies and their credit ratings: what they are, how they work, and why they are relevant (Vol. 510). John Wiley Sons. Mulligan, C. M. (2009). From AAA to F: How the credit rating agencies failed America and What can be done to protect investors. BCL Rev., 50, 1275. Pinto, A. R. (2006). Control and responsibility of credit rating agencies in the United States. The American Journal of Comparative Law, 54, 341-356. White, L. J. (2010). Markets: The credit rating agencies. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24(2), 211-226.